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Epidemiology

• 2-4 per 1000 live births worldwide and 20 per 10,000 live births in the US
• Higher male to female ratio (4-6:1)
• Higher incidence (1.5x) in first-born children
• Highest incidence in caucasian infants
• Less common in infants of older mothers

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Risk Factors and Etiology

The exact mechanisms and etiologies are unclear, but it is hypothesized that it is multifactorial and is a result of both genetic predisposition and environmental triggers.

• Environmental Factors
  • Maternal smoking (up to 2x increased risk)
  • Bottle feeding
    • Bottle feeding during first 4 months increased risk by 4x
      • Didn’t delineate formula vs breastmilk
• Genetic Factors
  • Reports of familial aggregation, but there is no clear research association
  • Apolipoprotein A1 (APOA1) gene cluster
    • Hypothesized low plasma cholesterol at birth and increased risk

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• Macrolide Antibiotics
  • Increased risk if given to infants < 2 weeks old
    • Treatment/prophylaxis for pertussis
  • Association with maternal use during first two weeks of life

• Icteropyloric syndrome
  • Unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia
    • Most commonly from early Gilbert’s Syndrome

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History and Physical Examination

• Class presentation for PANCE
  • < 6 week old with post-prandial, non-bilious projectile vomiting around 10 minutes after cessation of feeding
  • Ravenous feeder even after vomiting
• May be emaciated and/or dehydrated
  • Though we are diagnosing earlier and infants tend to be healthier
• Palpable mass in the epigastrium (50-90%)
  • This is also less commonly seen due to healthier infants and ease of obtaining radiologic students
    • 73% in the 1970s to only 30% now
  • Felt as a firm mass at the lateral edge of the rectus abdominis muscle in the RUQ
  • Peristaltic waves may also be observed
  • Ideally, immediately after vomiting and while the infant is calm

• Other important assessments
  • Height/weight
  • Mucous membranes and skin turgor
  • Skin and sclerae
  • Genitalia
    • Ambiguous genitalia raises suspicion for congenital adrenal hyperplasia and adrenal crisis

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Diagnostic Studies

• Laboratory
  • Hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis
    • 88% PPV if pH > 7.45, chloride < 98, and base excess > +3
  • Assess for dehydration
    • BUN/creatinine > 20:1
  • Liver Function Tests
    • Bilirubin breakdown, AST/ALT, GGT, and ALP

• Radiography
  • Ultrasound is the test of choice
    • Accuracy is operator dependent, but can reach > 95% sensitivity/specificity
    • “Target” sign on transverse view
    • Normal Measurements (vary with age and used together)
      • Pyloric Muscle Thickness
        • < 3mm
      • Pyloric Muscle Length
        • < 14mm
      • Pyloric Channel Length
        • < 16mm

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• Fluoroscopic Upper Gastrointestinal Series
  • Used if ultrasound is nondiagnostic
  • Classic findings :
    • “string” sign from an elongated pyloric canal
    • “double-track” sign from two thin tracks of barium along the pyloric canal created by compressed pyloric mucosa
    • “beak”sign from a tapered point at the pyloric ending
    • “shoulder” sign from a prepyloric bulge of barium

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Differential Diagnosis

Although pyloric stenosis has a classic presentation, you must entertain the other important causes of vomiting in infancy.

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Treatment

• Definitive management is surgery
• Timing of surgery depends on the clinical status of the infant
  • If healthy, surgery can be performed on the day of diagnosis
  • If ill, then resuscitation and feeding need to be performed to limit perioperative complications.

• Technique
  • Ramstedt Pyloromyotomy
    • Longitudinal incision of the pylorus with blunt dissection down to the submucosa

• Open vs Laparoscopic
  • No difference in operating time, time to full feeding, or length of stay
  • Laparoscopic had lower incidence of emesis and better pain control, but higher incidence of incomplete surgical release

• Postoperative Management
  • Feeding
    • Resumed within a few hours after surgery
    • Regurgitation is common, but should not delay/stop feedings
  • Breathing
    • Monitor for apnea at least for 24 hours
  • Complications
    • Mucosal perforation (rare)

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Follow-Up

• Surgery is curative in the majority of patients
• Once normal feeds occur, only routine pediatric care and follow-up is needed
• Reflux is common and managed conservatively

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The Cottage Physician (1893)

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References

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2. To T, Wajja A, Wales PW, Langer JC. Population demographic indicators associated with incidence of pyloric stenosis. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine. 2005; 159(6):520-5. [pubmed]
3. Krogh C, Fischer TK, Skotte L, et al. Familial aggregation and heritability of pyloric stenosis. JAMA. 2010; 303(23):2393-9. [pubmed]
4. Krogh C, Gørtz S, Wohlfahrt J, Biggar RJ, Melbye M, Fischer TK. Pre- and perinatal risk factors for pyloric stenosis and their influence on the male predominance. American journal of epidemiology. 2012; 176(1):24-31. [pubmed]
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